Early Elizabethan England, 1558–88
Social Hierarchy - Monarchs are at the top of the social scale and are the most important members of the nobility.
In Towns: based off occupation and wealth
In England (countryside, where 90% lived): Based on the amount of land
- It's slightly easier to move social classes in towns. It's based on wealth, and individuals can either lose or gain all of their wealth.
- Husband/Father - Head of household; wife, kids, and servants are expected to obey him.
Government
Court:
- The monarch's key servants, advisors, and friends are mostly nobility.
- Public display of wealth and power.
- Courtiers influenced monarchs rather than actual power.
- There was limited power in the political system because the monarch didn't always heed advice.
Privy Council:
- Leading courtiers, advisors, nobles, and senior government officials.
- For example, Cecil was one of the 19 members who were chosen by the monarch and met at least three times a week.
- Debated current issues and advised the monarch on government policy. Made sure the monarch's final decisions were carried out.
- Monitored JPs, proceedings of Parliament, local government, and law and order.
- The most powerful monarch sought their advice three times a week and trusted them to implement decisions.
Parliament:
- House of Lords (inc. Bishops) and House of Commons.
- Only called and dismissed by Monarch.
- They granted extraordinary taxation, enacted laws, and provided advice to the monarch, thereby bolstering the monarch's legitimacy and showcasing their support across the nation.
- Not very powerful: and Elizabeth didn't have to LISTEN to them.
Lords Lieutenant:
- The monarch chose one representative from each county, usually a privy council, which was essential to maintaining the monarch's power.
- In charge of raising/training local militia and overseeing county defence.
- Part of local government that oversaw enforcement of policies.
Lords Lieutenant:
- The monarch chose one representative from each county, usually a privy council, which is essential to maintaining the monarch's power.
- In charge of raising/training local militia and overseeing county defence.
- Part of local government that oversaw enforcement of policies.
Justices of the Peace (JPs):
- Their status was that of large landowners who maintained law and order in the local area. They received no payment and submitted their reports to the Privy Council.
- Part of local government and made sure all economic and social policies were carried out and heard serious county court cases.
Monarch:
- Elizabeth made government policy and all decisions because she had the Divine Right.
- Patronage provides someone with an important job or position.
→ Elizabeth did this as a patron to get support from people and control them by giving them a grant of land, a title, or championing a cause.
The Secretary of State:
- The most important Privy Councillor is the Secretary of State.
- Sir William Cecil was the most significant person to hold this position until 1573.
Monarch and Parliament:
- At times, the need for additional funds necessitated the agreement of Parliament to raise extraordinary taxes.
- The Queen could order direct orders (proclamations) by Parliament to be enforced in England's law courts, but Acts of Parliament couldn't be.
- For areas where only the monarch could decide and approve.
- Parliament presented policies in certain areas using the royal prerogative. Elizabeth had the authority to prevent parliament from debating topics such as foreign policy, management, and succession.
Legitimacy
- Elizabeth's legitimacy was in doubt because her father divorced Catherine of Aragon and married Anne Boleyn.
→ The Pope didn't accept divorce, so Catholics didn't recognise it.
- This meant Henry VII created the Church of England and the Reformation to grant divorce and make Elizabeth a legitimate queen.
- Elizabeth was born while Catherine of Aragon was still alive, and some Catholics faced execution for rejecting legitimacy.
- In 1536 Anne Boleyn was executed for treason, so Elizabeth was removed from succession, but this was later reversed.
→ The role was very important/God's representative (Divine Rights), so succession decided God's influence.
Gender and marriage
- In 16th-century society, the idea of a queen ruling seemed highly unnatural and unusual. People held the belief that women were incapable of ruling and should defer to men, as they expected God to guide religion. Furthermore, Christian armies expected their monarchs to engage in battle.
- Mary I's reign did not go well either, as there was a lack of confidence in another woman in power.
- Elizabeth had no intention of marrying and turned down many offers from eligible princes, such as Philip II of Europe.
Background Politics: When she came to the throne:
- England allied with Spain in a war against France and lost, so morale was low.
- Several disastrous harvests led to disease, hunger, and poverty.
- Many burnt 300 people for religious beliefs.
- Mary's marriage to King Phillip II of Spain was so unpopular that it sparked a rebellion.
Elizabeth's character:
- The Privy Council and advisers found her very frustrating because she took a long time to make up her mind over serious matters.
- Elizabeth was highly educated and intelligent, spoke four languages, and had an excellent grasp of politics.
→ She endured imprisonment in the Tower of London due to suspicions of treason against Mary I.
- She was confident and charismatic, able to make powerful speeches and win over subjects, but she had a temper that people feared.
Financial Weakness:
- Monarchs could raise money from:
→ Rents/Income from Crown lands.
→ Custom duties (taxes from trade).
→ The profits of justice, which include fines, property, and lands from individuals convicted of crimes, are significant.
- Before Elizabeth came to the throne, OCD fought costly wars and sold Crown lands to raise money, resulting in a debt of £300 and a total annual income of £286,067.
- Elizabeth didn't want to rely on Parliament, so she didn't ask for increased taxes from Parliament, which further heightened the public's dislike for her.
→ Too much for her income, as this would make her seem weaker. To be strong, Elizabeth had to be wealthy.
The French Threat
- France was wealthier, had a larger population than England, and was a traditional enemy of England.
- The friendship between France and Scotland, known as the Auld Alliance, surrounded England with enemies and posed a threat.
- Mary Qos, a Scottish monarch and Elizabeth's cousin, held a strong claim to the English throne. Another Catholic alternative to Elizabeth was Mary Qos, who was also half French. Also half French, she married the heir to the French throne and then became queen of France in 1559.
France and Scotland:
- Scotland was an independent country and a traditional enemy of England; the border was difficult to defend due to constant raids and guerillas.
- In 1559, Mary's mother, Mary of Guise, ruled Scotland on behalf of her daughter and had French troops stationed there.
France and Calais:
- England held the French port Calais since 1347, but war against France in 1558 meant Mary I had to return Calais to France.
- This was problematic because it implied that England not only had a military base in France but also served as a significant trading post.
- The Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis marked the return of Calais, and it became crucial for Elizabeth to rectify Mary's mistake, thereby boosting the public's confidence in her.
- England is concerned that France and Spain, no longer at war, may unite and attack England due to religious differences.
The English Reformation
- The Reformation began in Europe because more people believed the Roman Catholic Church had become corrupt, greedy, and no longer represented a truly Christian life.
→ Led people (Protestants) to abandon Roman Catholic faith and establish churches without the Pope.
- The English Reformation began in 1532 when Henry VII created the Church of England.
- 1558: Challenges to centuries-old beliefs that threatened to topple established social and political hierarchies were the driving force behind the Reformation, which was tearing Europe apart.
Protestantism:
- In Catholicism, ordinary people had to accept what the church told them, as the Bible was only written in Latin.
→ There is no power to interpret the Bible in any other way.
- Protestants held the belief that translating the Bible into their own languages would facilitate greater engagement with their religion.
→ As people gained a deeper understanding of the Bible, extreme Protestants sought to establish their religion solely based on it.
Catholicism Features:
- The pope is head of the church.
- Bible and church service in Latin.
- The church acts as an intermediary between God and people.
- Priests should wear vestments (special clothes).
- Churches should have elaborate decorations to honour and glorify God.
- The church can forgive sins.
Protestantism Features:
- No pope.
- Attend church services and read the Bible in one's own language.
- People have their own direct relationship with God through Bible study and prayer.
- Priests aren't special and shouldn't wear vestments.
- Churches are simple and straightforward; they should not distract from worshipping God.
Religious Differences in England (1558)
- There was widespread religious conflict in Europe as Roman Catholics and Protestants fought to establish their respective religions as the "true".
→ Elizabeth feared conflict would spread to England.
Clergy:
- In 1558, the majority of bishops were Catholic, and a change in the country's religion required an Act of Parliament.
→ There were numerous Catholic bishops in the House of Lords, and while many converted to Christianity to maintain their positions, others remained devoted Catholics who refused to enter Protestant churches.
Geographical Divisions:
- Northern areas, further away from London, were significantly more Catholic and less likely to accept Protestantism.
→ A more remote community is more likely to be Catholic.
- London, East + SE = More Protestant because:
→ The region is closer to German states and the Netherlands, where Protestantism first spread.
→ Monarchs resided in London and wielded greater power.
→ Reaching areas far from London took a long time.
→ London had significantly higher literacy rates, enabling people to read the Bible.
Puritans
- Radical Protestants, also known as Puritans, aimed to purify the Christian religion by eliminating any elements not found in the Bible.
- Elizabeth liked the simplicity of Puritan churches, which lacked the vestments and altars found in some Protestant churches.
- Puritan congregations wanted to manage their own churches; this meant the monarch's role as head of the church was no longer relevant, challenging her authority as queen.
Religious Settlement (1559)
- Elizabeth needed to compromise by establishing a form of Protestantism that Catholics could accept.
- Elizabeth commanded no one to follow the monarch's religion.
- Successful governments require people to look to the monarch or church as the ultimate source of authority.
Features of Religious Settlement:
- The Act of Supremacy: Established Elizabeth as the supreme governor of the Church of England, requiring all clergy and royal officials to swear an oath of allegiance to her.
→ This led to the establishment of an ecclesiastical high commission, tasked with upholding the Queen's religious system, potentially punishing clergy who showed loyalty or doubt.
- The Act of Uniformity: Established the appearance of churches and the form of services they held.
→ All churches should use the Book of Common Prayer, and clergy should adhere to its wording during services, punishing those who don't. The wording is intentionally ambiguous to allow both Catholics and Protestants to interpret it as they see fit.
→ Made priests wear vestments.
→ On Sundays and holy days, everyone must attend church.
- There was a fine of 1 shilling for each day of absence. Labourers could earn between 5 pence and 4 shillings per day; skilled craftsmen could earn up to 4 shillings, and servants could earn up to 8 shillings. For many, a fine for not attending church could total up to a week's pay. However, 1 shilling wouldn't be a serious amount of money for nobility; Catholic nobles (powerful people) were slightly happier, which prevents a revolt.
- The Royal Injunctions were a set of instructions issued by Sir William Cecil to reinforce Supremacy and Uniformity on a wide range of issues, including instructions on how people should worship.
→ Included:
→ God and the structure of services.
→ All clergy members were required to teach the Royal Supremacy and wear special vestments.
→ Each parish was required to have an English copy of the Bible, and no one could preach without a government license.
→ The Privy Council received reports from those who refused to attend church.
→ The government banned pilgrimages to monuments dedicated to 'saints.' Catholics valued pilgrimages and locations where saints supposedly performed miracles, while Protestants considered them superstitious. The Royal Injunction, while referring to 'false' miracles, left open the possibility of real ones, leading to the widespread acceptance of religious settlement.
→ Work and images in churches helped maintain a familiar look for worshippers → People less unsettling. However, Puritans disliked these changes—they believed that people should pray to the one true God and that praying to idols was a sin.
Impact of Religious Settlement
Elizabeth did not want Protestant Church Catholics to have to choose between their loyalty to their queen and their religion.
Clergy:
- Out of 10,000 parishes in England, 8,000 priests and less important clergy took the oath of Supremacy, and the settlement was largely successful.
- Only 1/8 of the bishops took the oath. Elizabeth had to appoint 27 new Protestant bishops. She couldn't afford to lose the support of new bishops because there was a shortage of qualified Protestant clergy in England.
People:
- The majority of ordinary people accepted Elizabeth's religious settlement, although many of them held onto Catholic beliefs.
- The wording of the prayer book helped.
- Parishes where Catholics were in the majority didn't show new changes, but Elizabeth made it clear she didn't want settlement to be enforced too strongly (not what Mary did).
Role of the Church of England:
- The parish church was central to village life, and religion could have a massive impact on people.
Church Courts:
- Dealt with moral issues like marriage, sexual offences, slander, wills, and inheritance.
- All other offences dealt with by the ordinary court system, e.g., civil cases, disputes over land, robbery, fraud, rape, and murder.
Role of the Church of England
- Ran church courts.
- The monarch gained legitimacy by enforcing a religious settlement.
- Parish churches provided guidance to communities during periods of hardship and uncertainty.
- Elizabeth ensured that the clergy preached her religious and political message.
Enforcing the Settlement:
- Visitations were inspections of churches and clergy by bishops to ensure everyone took the oath of supremacy and followed religious settlement terms.
- The First Visitations took place in 1559, leading to the dismissal of up to 400 clergy. In certain locations, the First Visitations led to the loss and destruction of church decorations and statues, an action that Elizabeth did not approve of, as she wished to avoid a close examination of people's religious beliefs.
- After 1559, visitations took place every 3-4 years. These were wide-ranging and didn't just cover the church. For instance, not only clergy but also teachers, lawyers, midwives, surgeons, and physicians were required to present their licenses, and the church was also responsible for monitoring these professions for the government.
Puritan Challenge:
- The Puritan clergy quickly began disobeying parts of the religious settlement.
- Some clergymen wanted the abolishment of organ music accompanying hymns and certain holy days.
→ Elizabeth's authority as the Supreme Governor of the Church of England was directly challenged.
- The two biggest issues were clothing and crucifixes.
Crucifix Controversy:
- To Elizabethan Puritans, crucifixes represented idols.
→ However, Elizabeth liked them and wanted the churches to maintain their familiar look and feel, which did not anger the Catholic community.
- Elizabeth demanded each church should display a crucifix, but when some Puritan bishops threatened to resign, she backed down.
→ Unable to enforce her will → Couldn't afford to ignore concerns as she needed to prevent revolts (lack of money, too). Also, not enough Protestant clergymen to take the place of dismissed bishops.
Vestment Controversy:
- Some Puritans believed that priests should not wear any special clothing, while others believed it should be very plain or simple.
- Elaborate vestments suggested priests were distinct from the general public.
→ In Catholicism, priests were special as they could forgive sins and turn bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ.
- By 1565 it was clear not all clergy were wearing what the queen had commanded, and some weren't following instructions on conducting services properly.
- In 1566, Matthew Parker, archbishop of Canterbury, issued further guidelines for priests in the 'Book of Advertisements.'
→ Followed Elizabeth's commands. He also organised a special exhibition in London to demonstrate the vestments that priests were required to wear (similar to the crucifix controversy, where most priests complied with Elizabeth's rule). Out of the 110 priests who were invited, 37 declined to attend, resulting in the loss of their posts.
The Papacy:
- The campaign against Protestantism to strengthen Catholicism is known as the Counter-Reformation.
- The Pope ruled the Papacy, a system of church government.
- The movement actively promoted war against Protestants, persecuted heretics, and provided support to local communities.
- The papacy didn't offer much leadership to English Catholics, but in 1566 the pope issued an instruction that they shouldn't attend Church of England services.
→ Although there were penalties for those that didn't conform to the religious settlement, they were generally not imposed. Elizabeth ordered authorities not to investigate recusants too closely, preferring to ignore smaller examples of disobedience to avoid creating martyrs and maintain stability in the first decade of her reign.
England's nobility and the Catholic threat:
- An estimated ¼ of the nobility and a sizeable number of gentry were recusants, especially in NW England.
- Nobility who remained Catholic typically hailed from ancient, prosperous families in Northern England, which had flourished under Mary I. Elizabeth's reign reduced their influence. They disliked her favourites, e.g., Dudley, Earl of Leicester, and Sir William Cecil.
- None of Northumberland, Westmorland, from new noble families, or her favourites at all.
- Earls of Northumberland and Westmorland appealed to Catholic nobility, but they didn't join them.
- The vast majority of England's nobles stayed loyal to Elizabeth. (except Duke of Norfolk)
- Nobility was persuaded, but 100s of nobles were executed in the name of religious loyalty → Caused a marked change in Elizabeth's relationship with Catholic subjects.
Foreign Powers:
- Scotland, France, and parts of the Holy Roman Empire all had growing Protestant populations.
→ Nonetheless, Catholic powers, such as the Habsburg family, dominated Europe and were determined to curb the spread of Protestantism. Although there were competing family members in different areas of controlled Europe, their defence of the Catholic faith united them.
France:
- A religious war broke out in 1562; Elizabeth was concerned about its potential to threaten her realm by encouraging religious conflict in England.
- In 1562, Elizabeth agreed to assist French Protestants in their efforts to reclaim Calais, having previously assisted Scottish Protestant lords in their rebellion against Catholic rule in 1560.
- However, Elizabeth failed this time, as the French later made peace with each other in 1562.
- In 1564, Elizabeth signed the Treaty of Troyes, which confirmed Calais's ownership by France.
Spain and the Spanish Netherlands:
- In the 16th century, the Netherlands belonged to Spain (Philip II).
- Philip was a strict Roman Catholic and didn't like Elizabeth's support for Protestant rebels in Scotland and France.
→ In 1563, he banned the import of English cloth to the Netherlands due to his belief that English merchants were encouraging the spread of Protestantism.
- Elizabeth retaliated by ceasing to trade with the Netherlands.
→ The trade embargo affected both countries economically and only lasted 1 year.
- Elizabeth was also concerned that Spain and France could form an alliance against her.
- In the 1530s, the pope excommunicated Henry VIII after his break from Rome and then asked France and Spain to invade England and depose him.
The Dutch Revolt:
- Since the 1550s, the Netherlands, despite being part of Spain, had grown increasingly dissatisfied with Spanish interference in their affairs.
- Phillip II decided to reorganise the Dutch parliament and also brought the Spanish Inquisition over.
→ This united both Dutch Catholics and Protestants against Spain: the Dutch Revolt in 1566.
- In 1567, Philip sent the Duke of Alba with an army of 10,000 men to the Netherlands to put down the revolt → defeated by 1568.
- Alba established a council of Troubles in the Netherlands to enforce Catholicism and obedience to the Spanish crown. The council, composed of devoted Dutch nobles and Spanish officials who disregarded local laws and legal procedures, sentenced numerous individuals to death, primarily Protestants who fiercely opposed Catholicism.
- Alba's actions led to lots of Dutch Protestants fleeing into exile. Elizabeth was concerned by Alba's presence because.
→ Alba's large army was in striking distance of England.
→ Elizabeth didn't want to be seen as Europe's leading Protestant monarch; she wished to avoid war and openly condemned Dutch rebels. Nevertheless, Dutch rebels came to England.
- England didn't have resources to take on Spain, let alone Spain and France together. Therefore, given Spain's (the most powerful Catholic nation) desire to eradicate Protestantism worldwide, a conflict based on religious differences could potentially escalate into a civil war in England.
The Genoese Loan
- Some Dutch rebels, known as 'Sea Beggars,' fled by water and attacked Spanish ships in the English Channel, transporting men and resources to Alba's men in the Netherlands.
- Elizabeth started allowing Sea Beggars to seek shelter in English harbours in 1567.
- In 1568, Spanish ships carrying gold to pay Alba's troops in the Netherlands also took refuge in English ports. The money was a loan to Phillip II from bankers in Genoa, Italy.
→ Elizabeth decided to take gold herself, arguing that since it was a loan, it didn't belong to Spain but to Italy → This greatly angered the Spanish.
- Elizabeth was trying to protect English interests without going to war by making Spain's task in the Netherlands as difficult as possible. She hoped to encourage Spanish forces to leave and allow the Dutch to govern themselves like before.
- Elizabeth's strategy was risky and became riskier in 1568-69 due to the Catholic threat in England. This was because:
→ 1568 - Mary Qos fled to England from Scotland. She had a stronger claim to the throne than Elizabeth, according to many Catholics.
→ 1569 - Revolt of Northern Earls → Encouraged Philip II and the Pope to back further plots against Elizabeth I, with the possibility of using Alba's nearby troops.
Mary Queen of Scots
- In 1559, the Scottish lords' rebellion began because they didn't like the French and Catholic influence in Scotland brought by Mary, Queen of Guise.
- Elizabeth dispatched assistance to the lords, wary that the rebellion might result in the overthrow of an established monarch, but that French assistance, specifically Mary Qos, might usurp her throne.
- With Elizabeth's assistance, Mary Qos is constantly under threat.
- In 1560, the rebellion ended with the Treaty of Edinburgh.
- It said that Mary Qos would give up her claim to the English throne.
→ However, Mary never approved the treaty and upheld her claim to the English throne, as she desired to be named as Elizabeth's heir. Elizabeth had no intention of naming an heir, but not naming Mary Qos would divide and damage England (as she would only be popular with Catholics) and weaken Elizabeth's position.
- In December 1960, Mary Qos' husband (King of France) died, so she returned to Scotland. Although she was queen, the Protestant lords controlled the Scottish government; she had a lack of power after the rebellion. (and no influence).
Mary Qos' arrival in England:
- Mary married her second husband, Lord Darnley, in 1565.
- In 1567, there was suspicion that Mary was involved in his murder.
→ She married Bothwell shortly after Darnley's death, which was likely an admission of guilt for many.
- This scandal sparked a new rebellion among Scottish Protestant lords, forcing Mary to abdicate and making her feel unwanted in Scotland.
- A late threat to the people led to Mary's imprisonment in a castle.
- But she escaped in 1568. After raising an army to reclaim her throne, she faced defeat and fled to England, seeking Elizabeth's help against the rebels.
- Mary's arrival in May 1568 presented a challenge. Elizabeth kept her under guard but in comfort until she decided what to do. If Elizabeth decided to completely oppose Mary, it would infuriate Catholics, incite anger, and potentially lead to martyrdom, a situation Elizabeth didn't want. She couldn't kill Mary quickly either for the same reason and the fact she had a divine right. Mary remained in English captivity due to the court's inability to determine whether she was innocent of murder or not.
→ 4 found guilty as she would be returned to Protestant Scottish lords as their prisoner, and Elizabeth wouldn't have been supporting the deposition of an anointed monarch. If found innocent, Mary could raise an army with foreign support, which would threaten Elizabeth's position greatly.
- Scotland, now Protestant, was no longer an ally of France. This could make England stronger, as Scotland and England could team up.
Plots and Revolts:
- By the end of the 1560s, Elizabeth faced a range of threats to her throne at home and abroad.
The Revolt of the Northern Earls:
- Elizabeth's promotion of 'new men' (gentry and lower ranks of nobility) into some of the most important government roles threatened the Northern Earls, who remained loyal to Catholicism.
- Earns wished for the restoration of Catholicism after Elizabeth failed to name her heir. The presence of Mary Qos could potentially replace Elizabeth and resolve Earns' issues.
- Percy (the Earl of Northumberland) was included, as he lost lots of influence since Elizabeth favoured the new Protestant gentry. He also forfeited his rights to Westmorland, the family land, due to his affiliation with a prominent Northern Catholic family. Also, Norfolk's brother in law.
- Neville, the Earl of Westmorland, was associated with Elizabeth, senior nobles, and Protestants, but he also had ties to old, Northern, Catholic families. Later, he backed down and urged Earns to put an end to the rebellion.
- Mary Qos met Norfolk many times, and feeling Elizabeth supported the plan to marry him and take the English throne, she wanted Catholicism to die out. She appointed Pilkington as archbishop of Durham in 1561 to lessen the influence of Catholicism in the North.
- However, his efforts in imposing Catholicism were very unpopular and only meant he turned many Northerners against him and the religious settlement. This fuelled the desire for the revolt.
- Northern Earns also resented newcomers such as Dudley and Cecil because of the influence they had over Elizabeth.
- If Mary Qos married Norfolk, any children they had could be announced heirs (Elizabeth didn't name an heir) → Elizabeth's captives assumed that their heir would also be Protestant.
- The basic plan was to take over the north through rebel forces, with support from Catholics in the Midlands.
- They would then march south to London to join Norfolk and free Mary Qos, and they would marry and then rule over.
- Several thousand Spanish troops would support the rebel forces, and any resistance would be overthrown by the Spanish.
- However, eventually, the Earl of Leicester (Dudley) decided to inform Elizabeth about the plot. She then arrested Norfolk and sent him to the Tower of London.
- The rebellion ultimately failed as Spain's supporting troops never came, and Elizabeth raised an army of 14,000.
- After the revolt, 450 rebels were executed throughout Northern England → They wanted to firmly prevent another rebellion. Westmorland escaped to Northumberland and was executed, but Norfolk hesitated to execute Mary Qos, as it could look like Elizabeth was released (leniency). Mary Qos remained captive. She agreed with the Scots' decision to overthrow their rightful queen, which goes against divine rights.
Aftermath and Significance of the Revolt of the Northern Earls:
- The failed revolt prompted the pope to issue a papal bull, which excommunicated Elizabeth and urged all Catholics to depose her in an attempt to spark another rebellion.
The papal bull placed English Catholics in a challenging situation, leaving them uncertain about whether to follow or remain loyal to their spiritual or political leader, as both were no longer feasible.
- This meant in 1571, the definition of treason was widened → It became treasonable to claim Elizabeth was a heretic, not the queen, and to bring/print papal bulls into England.
- The power and influence of the Percy and Neville families came to an end in Northern England.
- The threat of the North prompted Elizabeth to no longer turn a blind eye to Catholic activities, and she sent the Earl of Huntington to lead the Council, effectively suppressing Catholicism.
The Ridolfi Plot;
- Ridolfi, an Italian living in England, served as one of the pope's spies. In 1571, he plotted to assassinate Elizabeth, initiate a Spanish invasion, elevate Mary Qos to the throne through her marriage to Norfolk, and establish his own residence.
- Ridolfi had a letter signed by Norfolk saying he was Catholic and would lead a rebellion in the North in support. Phillip II, Duke of Alba, who was stationed in the Netherlands, was instructed to prepare 10,000 men to sail to England if necessary.
- Sir William Cecil uncovered the plot and had enough evidence by autumn 1571 to prove Norfolk guilty of high treason again.
- In June 1572, Norfolk was executed, but no action was taken against Mary.
Ridolfi's Significance:
- The plot, which came so soon after the papal bull, reaffirmed the threat Mary, Catholics abroad, and Catholics in England posed.
- Anxiety about Spain's intentions escalated due to Alba's increased persecution of Dutch Protestants and the Netherlands' proximity to England.
- This threat from Spain meant that Elizabeth focused on improving her relations with France.
Priests and Priest Holes:
- Beginning in 1574, smugglers smuggled Catholic priests into England to preserve Catholicism and bolster resistance against Elizabeth.
- The priests dangerously travelled undercover, staying with wealthy Catholic families to celebrate Mass and hearing confessions.
- Government agents increasingly kept English Catholics under surveillance, searching homes where they suspected priests were staying and creating secret hiding places, known as priest holes, in many of these homes.
- Priests caught risked being hanged, drawn, and quartered, although not all were.
In 1581 parliament passed 2 laws against Catholics:
1. Recusants would now face a fine of £20, an astronomical amount that could bankrupt numerous families.
2. Attempting to convert people to Catholicism was now treason.
- The Ridolfi plot indicated that individuals abroad were attempting to overthrow Elizabeth. Implementing harsher laws on Catholics would increase the acceptance of the religious settlement, as Catholics would fear the consequences of adhering to their faith. This would reduce the threat from abroad, as without Catholic support in England, they can't overthrow Elizabeth.
The Throckmorton Plot:
- The plan was for Mary's cousin, the French Duke of Guise, to invade England, liberate Mary, depose Elizabeth, and reinstate Catholicism in England. Phillip II would provide financial support, and the pope also approved of the plan.
- Francis Throckmorton was to act as a go-between with Mary.
- Walsingham uncovered the plot as his agents found incriminating papers at Throckmorton's house.
- In 1583, Throckmorton faced arrest and execution.
- The plot emphasised the power of foreigners, English Catholics, and Mary Qos. It also demonstrated the possible danger of Spain and France combining their forces in the future.
- Life became harder for Catholics.
→ The government viewed them with increased suspicion.
→ Many important Catholics fled England after the plot.
→ Up to 11,000 were imprisoned or lost under surveillance (house arrest).
→ An Act of Parliament was passed in 1585 that made the act of sheltering Catholic priests punishable by death.
The Babington Plot:
- The Duke of Guise would invade England with 60,000 men and put Mary on the throne. Phillip and the Pope supported this.
- Babington (a Catholic with French ties) wrote to Mary QoS in 1586. However, Walsingham was closely monitoring Mary, intercepting and reading her letters.
- After Walsingham gathered enough information about the plot, he arrested and executed (hung, drawn, and quartered) all six Catholics who were preparing to assassinate Elizabeth.
- The Privy Council finally tried Mary, but there were too many conspiracies surrounding her to declare her innocent.
- Elizabeth did not sign the warrant for Mary's death until February 1587.
Why was Mary Qos Executed?
- 1885: The Act for Preservation of the Queen's Safety said that Mary was to be barred from the succession in the event of Elizabeth's assassination. Any action against Many should only be taken once a commission investigates it. The commission investigated her role in the plot(s), held a trial, and found her guilty. Walsingham gathered sufficient evidence against - Mary Elizabeth, leading to her execution in February 1587.
- Rumours that Spanish troops had landed in Wales in January 1587 led to Mary's execution. Mary's presence presented a risk to England.
Significance of her Execution:
- Elizabeth is no longer in danger, and there is no Catholic replacement for her.
- Mary left her claim to the throne to Phillip II upon death.
- Phillip had been planning an invasion of England since 1585. The execution of Mary in 1585 infuriated him and gave him further motivation to remove Elizabeth from the throne. He had yet another reason to dethrone Elizabeth.
Walsingham's Spy Network:
- 1573: Walsingham became Elizabeth's secretary of state. He developed a network of spies and informers in England and overseas.
- He played a crucial role in uncovering plots.
- He paid spies who were ordinary people for information. He also had some specially trained agents.
- Spies and informants were in every county and important town.
- By 1580, Walsingham had 12 agents in towns in France, 4 in Germany, 4 in Spain, 3 in Italy, and others in Algiers, Tripoli, and Istanbul.
- Walsingham also employed cyphers in written correspondence to conceal his intentions to apprehend those who were conspiring against Elizabeth.
- Another source of informers was Catholic priests captured after being smuggled into England. For instance, in 1581, the Tower held John Hart, who offered his services as a spy in exchange for a pardon.
- To plot and uncover traitors, Walsingham also employed agent provocateurs—agents who join suspected groups and encourage other members to break the law.
- No one, including nobility, was above suspicion, and members of the nobility were routinely spied on.
- Walsingham disapproved of torture being used against Catholic priests, as it would make people sympathetic towards them.
- Not all captured priests were executed. Elizabeth created special prisons with lenient conditions. However, Elizabeth's reign saw the execution of 130 priests.
Elizabeth's Foreign Policy Aims:
- The pressures of ruling England influenced foreign policy. These pressures included:
→ There is a disparity in wealth and population compared to Spain and France, along with religious differences.
Elizabeth's Foreign Policy Aims included:
→ Developing and improving trade can benefit the economy.
→ Protecting borders (threats from Spain), and
→ Avoiding war is crucial due to its high cost and the potential for rebels to support enemy plans.
Problems Merchants faced in Developing Trade:
- Spain controlled the Netherlands, which was England's main route into European markets. This made England vulnerable to attacks and potentially able to track English merchants.
→ Antwerp was important to English trade in the Netherlands.
- Spain held control over a significant portion of the New World, a region rich in trading opportunities. This meant England didn't have access, as Spain claimed much of the Americas (Treaty of Tordesillas).
- Profits to be made in the New World were potentially massive.
→ There were valuable crops such as tobacco and sugar cane, along with an abundance of silver.
- Anyone who wanted to trade in the New World had to be licensed by Spain, which was very hard to come by.
- Many English merchants ignored and traded illegally, and some also attacked Spanish ships. Phillip couldn't ignore the challenge to Spain's interests in the New World.
Sir Francis Drake:
- An English merchant who made his name and fortune trading in the New World. Also made lots of money for investors in his voyages. Lots of actions could be piracy.
- During expeditions to the West Indies in 1570-71, he captured lots of Spanish ships and seized their cargoes.
- In 1572, Elizabeth hired Drake as a privateer (licensed pirate) and received a favourable return on her investment.
→ Drake went to Panama and captured £40,000 in Spanish silver.
- Elizabeth's decision to back Drake was risky, as it could provoke more conflict with Spain.
→ It was only avoided because when Drake returned in 1573, both monarchs were trying to improve Anglo-Spanish relations.
- Elizabeth was privately proud of Drake, but Phillip's anger meant Elizabeth couldn't publicly praise Drake.
- In November 1577, Drake sailed around the tip of South America to its Pacific coastline. He was to bring back gold, silver, spices, and other valuables.
- Elizabeth also issued Drake with secret orders to attack Spain's colonies in the New World.
- By 1577, the fear of a Spanish invasion had worsened Anglo-Spanish relations.
→ This meant Elizabeth wanted to enrich England, disrupt Spain's valuable trade, and send a message of defiance to Phillip.
Outcomes of Drake's Voyage:
- Drake's voyage from 1577 to 1580 gained immense fame as he became the first Englishman and the second person to circumnavigate the globe.
→ It was a significant accomplishment, given the high risk associated with long sea voyages. Drake set off with 5 ships and only had 1 left (the Golden Hind) when he reached the Pacific.
- Drake successfully plundered Spanish ports and ships along the coastline of Chile and Peru.
- He claimed a region in North California, named it New Albion, and added Elizabeth's name to it.
- It is estimated that Drake returned with £400,000 of Spanish treasure. Although some went to investors, a great sum went to the English crown, more than the crown's annual income.
→ This boost in finances meant Elizabeth could prepare and fight well if Spain were to attack.
- Elizabeth knighted Drake on the deck of the Golden Hind. Phillip was outraged by the public display as he viewed Drake as nothing more than a pirate.
→ Elizabeth's public knighting sent a message of strong defiance to Spain.
Political and Religious Rivalry:
- In the 1500s, nations of Europe competed for more territory, which secured them more wealth and power.
→ This rivalry resulted in a foreign policy that ultimately led to war.
- Religion was another source of conflict. For example, Phillip opposed Elizabeth's religious settlement in 1559.
→ Catholics viewed Protestantism as a threat that required eradication.
→ Protestants perceived Catholicism as an evil that aimed to destroy the 'true religion'.
- Alliances were also a part of foreign policy. Countries formed alliances based on their current needs and disbanded them when they ceased to be beneficial.
- In the 1500s, England wasn't as wealthy or powerful as Spain or France.
→ Spain and France competed to be the greatest European power, and each valued England as an ally against the other.
- France wanted to be allied with England because France was surrounded by Spanish territory except to the North.
- Spain desired an alliance with France because Elizabeth's fleet could aid in protecting ships travelling through the channel to the Netherlands.
Dutch Rebels:
- From 1567, Spanish ships sailed to the Netherlands with troops and resources for the Duke of Alba's army.
There was a brutal campaign to eradicate Protestantism in the Netherlands. This alarmed English Protestants, and Elizabeth's leading Privy Councillors were Protestant, and they pressured her to help Dutch Protestant rebels.
- Elizabeth was reluctant to help Dutch Protestant rebels, as she wanted to avoid war with Spain.
→ Spain would have the Pope's backing, which could encourage English Catholics to welcome a Spanish invasion.
→ The Pope's backing also meant that Catholic France could side with Spain.
→ The cost was high, and England's finances were weaker than Spain's.
→ If Elizabeth took direct action supporting Dutch rebels against their monarch, Phillip, English Catholics may do the same.
What did Elizabeth Do?
- Elizabeth hoped to apply pressure on the Spanish to encourage them to agree to return the Netherlands to how they'd been governed under an agreement made in 1548.
→ This agreement had given the Dutch lots of autonomy, which Phillip had challenged and sparked an initial revolt in 1566.
- Elizabeth applied pressure on Phillip by:
→ Indirectly helping Dutch rebels resist the Spanish,
→ allowing Spanish shipping and colonies to come under attack from English privateers, which would divert Phillip's attention and also reduce how much money came in.
→ She also pursued friendly relations with France, which made England seem stronger.
→ She encouraged others to fight against Spain in the Netherlands.
- In the 1570s, Elizabeth promised a marriage alliance to the Duke of Alencon, heir to the French throne.
→ The intention was to sufficiently frighten Phillip to restore Spain's independence. When it didn't work out, Elizabeth used her influence with Alencon to encourage him to fight Spain in the Netherlands. This was risky, though, because if France was too successful, they could claim the Netherlands for themselves.
The Spanish Fury:
- By 1576, the Spanish government in the Netherlands was bankrupt. The cost of war was too severe for Spain to continue at the same pace.
- Spain's forces in the Netherlands finally mutinied after months without pay and rampaged through Dutch provinces, finally sacking Antwerp in Nov 1576. This was called the Spanish Fury.
The Pacification of Ghent:
- The violence in Antwerp united all 17 Dutch provinces, Protestant and Catholic, against Spain.
- They drew up the Pacification of Ghent, which demanded:
→ all Spanish troops were to be expelled from the Netherlands,
→ the restoration of political autonomy, and
→ an end to religious persecution.
- Elizabeth sent a loan of £100,000 to Dutch rebels and agreed at some point to send an expeditionary force to the Netherlands to ensure the Pacification of Ghent was carried out.
→ In Feb 1577, Don Juan arrived in the Netherlands and agreed to all the terms of the 17 United Provinces.
- However, less than 6 months later, Phillip sent a new army to attack the Dutch. Elizabeth hired John Casimir, a mercenary, and financed him to raise an army of 6000 English and Scottish volunteers to help the Dutch. This meant that Elizabeth wasn't officially sending an English army in her name (Spain and England were not at war).
- This plan backfired, as Casimir's forces destroyed Dutch Catholic churches and persuaded the Dutch Catholics to make peace with Spain.
- Privy Councillors urged Elizabeth to intervene directly in the Netherlands.
- In 1578, the circumstances were favourable for a potential Dutch victory.
→ An independent Netherlands would be a strong Protestant ally for England against Spain.
→ However, Elizabeth hesitated, prompting the Dutch to request help from the French. Alencon agreed and came with an army to fight the Spanish.
- By 1579, the Netherlands' situation had changed.
→ The Duke of Parma sent by Phillip was a far more effective military leader than Don Juan, and the Spanish soon had the upper hand.
- The Duke of Alencon came to England in Oct 1581, and Elizabeth agreed to give him £70,000 for support in the Netherlands.
- In 1580, Phillip acquired Portugal, along with its empire and naval forces. This new wealth and strength alarmed Elizabeth. The odds against England were even greater.
- Alencon returned to the Netherlands in 1582, faced failure, and then returned to France in 1583.
- In June 1584, Alencon died, and one month later, William of Orange, leader of the Protestant rebels in the Netherlands, was assassinated.
- At the end of 1584, the French Catholic League signed the Treaty of Joinville with Phillip to secure his help against French Protestants.
- In 1585, the King of France signed up to the Catholic League's aim. Catholic France and Spain were now allies against Protestantism.
→ It was now too risky for England to support the Dutch rebels, as it could cause a war with both France and Spain, which she wouldn't be able to win.
Impact of the Death of Alencon on Foreign Policy:
- France was unable to continue fighting Spain in the Netherlands, leading to a religious war in France, which was too unstable to be a useful ally to England.
- France was now Catholic.
Impact of the Death of Orange on Foreign Policy:
- Showed how easy it was for a leader like Elizabeth to be assassinated.
- The Dutch Protestant rebels, in need of a leader, looked to Elizabeth. One could perceive her as attempting to topple Phillip.
- Spain could defeat the Dutch rebels without a leader, leaving England as Phillip's next target.
Direct Involvement:
- After the Treaty of Joinville was signed, Elizabeth could no longer avoid direct intervention in the Netherlands.
- In August 1585, Elizabeth signed the Treaty of Nonsuch with the Protestant rebels, which put England and Spain at war.
- Elizabeth agreed to directly intervene in the Netherlands on the rebels' side, and England would finance an army of 7400 English troops under Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester.
→ Dudley would work with the Council of State, the rebels' government.
- In October 1585, Elizabeth sent Drake to raid New World settlements to disrupt Phillip's flow of resources and finances. However, this only angered Phillip, who told the Pope he intended to invade England at the end of 1585.
England's Intervention in the Netherlands:
- The lack of initiative and ongoing negotiations with Spain hindered Elizabeth's success.
→ Leicester didn't receive enough funding for troops or supplies to launch a significant campaign.
- The campaign started badly. In Jan 1586, Leicester accepted the title of Governor General of the Netherlands on Elizabeth's behalf. Elizabeth was furious as it implied she was deposing Phillip as King of the Netherlands.
- In the summer of 1586, English forces only managed to slow the Duke of Parma's advance through the Netherlands.
- In September, they took some forts outside the Spanish-controlled town of Zutphen, but in Jan 1587 they lost one Zutphen fort when it was handed over to the Spanish by Stanley and York.
- The Dutch found it challenging to trust Leicester, especially as he'd appointed Stanley.
- Leicester was called back to England in Nov 1586 but returned to the Netherlands in June 1587.
→ He didn't have enough men and supplies but still managed to cause the Duke of Parma enough problems to prevent him from taking the major deep-water port of Ostend.
- Parma's failure to capture any deep-water ports proved important in the failure of the Armada in 1588.
- The English campaign between 1586 and 1588 was unsuccessful due to poor relations between English and Dutch leaders and Elizabeth's lack of commitment.
- Leicester and Elizabeth had different aims. Leicester wanted to liberate, and Elizabeth wanted to return to 1548.
- Elizabeth was never fully behind the rebels. She didn't give Leicester enough funds and still hoped to negotiate with Spain.
Drake Singes the King of Spain's Beard:
- Since Jan 1586, Spain had been preparing the Armada.
- In March 1587, Elizabeth ordered Drake to attack Spain's navy.
→ On April 19, 1587, he sailed into Cadiz Harbour, Spain's most important Atlantic port, and over the course of three days, he destroyed 30 ships and many of the fleet's provisions, including cannons and food.
- The attack on Cadiz is known as 'the singeing of the King of Spain's beard'.
- Drake then spent several weeks attacking the coast of Portugal before heading to the Azores.
→ His aim was to capture Spanish treasure ships bringing silver from the New World.
- The disruption caused by Drake (despite only capturing one) forced Spain to halt the construction of the Armada in order to defend itself against Drake. This delayed the Armada by a year and gave England time to prepare.
Why did Phillip launch the Spanish Armada?
1) Religion: Phillip wanted to get rid of heresy. Spain, deeply rooted in Catholicism and harboring a strong dislike for Protestantism, actively encouraged the plots.
- The Pope promised to forgive the sins of those participating in the Armada and offered a reward to Phillip if successful.
2) Spain's power: England would be useful to their empire. Spain acquired Portugal in 1580, and the Duke of Parma achieved significant success in the Netherlands, despite Elizabeth's reluctance. So, Spain seemed stronger.
3) Spain was angry with England: Due to Drake's actions (attacks and knighting) and the Treaty of Nonsuch.
Phillip's Strategy:
- Phillip's Armada was the largest fleet Europe had seen with 130 ships, 2431 guns, and around 30,000 men.
- Duke Medina-Sidonia ordered the voyage along the English Channel to the Netherlands.
- Then, the Duke of Parma would join them. Together, they would transport 27,000 troops to Kent, and then Parma would march on London, depose Elizabeth, and impose a new Catholic government in England.
How England defeated the Armada?
1) English ship design:
- Galleons were built from the early 1570s and were designed to be easier and faster to maneuver.
- Unlike Spanish ships, the English ships mounted their cannons on smaller gun carriages. A cannon recoils quite a long way when fired. English ships' decks provided ample space for cannons to recoil, allowing a small team of men to quickly reload them before pushing them back through the gun port.
→ The English ships could fire more cannonballs at the Spanish with more speed.
- However, there were only 24 galleons by 1588, so galleons alone can't explain Spain's defeat.
2) Spanish supplies:
- Drake's raid on Cadiz destroyed so many barrels that new ones had to be made quickly. Provisions were stored in barrels of inferior wood.
- Delays in setting sail and adverse weather also meant that by the time the English engaged the Armada, it had already been at sea for over 10 weeks.
→ When the English boarded the first Spanish ship, they found its food supplies already rotting.
- Medina-Sidonia's documents also reveal that the Armada lacked sufficient supplies of cannonballs, and those that were available were of poor quality.
3) Planning and communication issues:
The Duke of Parma was a weakness because:
- He didn't control any deep-sea ports, which large warships needed. Instead it would take 48 hours to load, man, and set sail lots of smaller ships once word came from Medina-Sidonia to join his fleet.
- The two Dukes had to communicate by sea. It took a week for word to reach Parma that Medina-Sidonia was in the channel.
→ By this time, he was already in Calais waiting to engage with the English. By the time the message reached Parma, it was too late, as the English were ready to attack.
- During the engagement off the Isle of Wight, the English were able to fire up to 6 times more cannonballs than the Spanish and from further away. A commander of the English fleet, the Earl of Nottingham, realised England's advantage and decided to conserve cannonballs for the decisive battle.
The Battle of Gravelines: August 1588:
- On the night of August 6th, the English sent fireships (empty ships set on fire and sent in the direction of the enemy) to cause confusion and damage.
→ It created very little damage to Spanish ships but created havoc by scattering the Armada.
- When the Armada regrouped on the 8th of Aug, the English engaged the Spanish in the Battle of Gravelines.
- Without Parma's ships, Medina-Sidonia had to battle against faster, more mobile English ships equipped with easier-to-load cannons. The winds defeated and dispersed the Armada. The gales caused most of the destruction, wrecking Spanish ships as they attempted to return home through the treacherous waters of Scottish and Irish coasts, resulting in thousands of deaths.
Why did the English defeat the Spanish Armada?
1) English tactics:
- The conversion also included galleons and additional cannons.
- Drake's raid on Cadiz destroyed provisions.
2) Poor communication between Spanish and Dutch:
- The Dutch had no deep-sea ports (Earl of Leicester and Ostend).
→ Used small ships that took too long to load.
- Communications were unreliable.
3) Armada was badly supplied:
- Low on cannonball quality and quantity.
- Food supplies rotting (Drake's raid).
4) Inferior Spanish ships:
- Couldn't withstand the weather.
- Didn't have Parma's help, so couldn't go back for supplies.
Consequences of English Victory:
- Elizabeth gave a powerful speech to her troops at Tilbury that encouraged and brought lots of national pride.
- Victory over the Armada gave Elizabeth a major propaganda victory.
→ A new portrait was commissioned.
→ The queen was at the centre of a grand parade in London. A commemorative medal was struck.
- Elizabeth was eager to emphasise that God favoured Protestantism (England) over Catholicism (Spain), which increased confidence in Protestantism.
- England survived an attack by a more powerful foe.
→ Nurtured feelings of English pride. This encouraged the Dutch rebels to renew their fight against the Spanish, resulting in the Anglo-Dutch alliance becoming stronger than ever.
- The defeat cost Spain financially and in terms of power, too.
Education:
- Only a minority of the population were educated, more in the city. This minority increased under Elizabeth's reign as education was becoming increasingly valuable.
- Any education you'd receive was aimed at preparing you for the life you were expected to lead. This led to limited social mobility.
- Very few girls received any formal education in Elizabethan England.
New Influences on Education:
- Humanists (thinkers and writers in the 16th century) believed learning was important in its own right. They held the belief that education should not solely serve practical purposes. They studied the work of ancient philosophers and mathematicians. Education was important to them, so people could stop being superstitious and fulfill their potential as human beings.
- Protestants believed that reading the Bible in one's own language fostered a deeper relationship with God, which encouraged more people to become literate.
- Business and trade developed. Basic education gained importance among a growing number of people, particularly in urban areas.
- However, for most people, education was limited (due to social hierarchy), and in rural areas where farming remained a way of life, little had changed.
Education at Home
Nobility:
- Children learnt a variety of subjects, including foreign languages, government, history, and theology. Given Elizabeth's high level of education in these subjects, noble families ensured their daughters received similar education.
- They also learnt a variety of skills expected of upper-class women, like music, dancing, needlework, and horseback riding.
- Both boys and girls received tutoring at home.
- Boys received instruction in manly sports like horseback riding, swimming, and wrestling.
- Noble families often sent their children to another noble household to complete their education.
→ The eldest sons would inherit their father's titles, so they needed to learn how to become future noblemen.
→ Girls would make useful social contacts and perfect the skills expected of them as noblewomen.
Grammar Schools:
- Grammar schools represented the most significant transformation in education.
→ 42 were founded in the 1560s, and
→ Thirty more were founded in the 1570s.
→ This meant there were more schools than ever before.
- Grammar schools were private educational institutions established for boys who were deemed bright, usually from well-off families in towns.
→ Sons of middling sorts, gentry, professionals, or wealthy business owners.
- Fees for grammar schools varied, depending on how much property the boy's family owned.
- Some bright boys from lower-class backgrounds were also able to attend and were not required to pay any fees. This was funded by people who left money to the schools to provide for those who couldn't go to school without help.
- Girls couldn't go to grammar schools and were usually educated at home by their mothers. This prepared them for married life and running a household.
- The school year was long, only with Christmas and Easter holidays.
- The school day began at 6 or 7 a.m. and lasted almost 10 hours.
→ The curriculum's focus was Latin, but they also studied ancient and classical historians, philosophers, and writers. Time was also allocated for chess, wrestling, and running.
There is a strong focus on committing vast amounts of text, particularly the Bible, to instill moral values and etiquette. Public speaking and debating were done as it was thought essential for a well-educated gentleman.
Discipline and Punishment in Grammar Schools:
- Outside the classroom, two boys were made monitors and had to report misbehaviour inside and outside school grounds.
→ Any boys reported were questioned on Mondays and punished, unless their behaviour was more serious, when they would be immediately punished.
- Punishments included corporal punishment, including caning, exclusion from school, and being kept in at break time.
Merchants and Craftsmen:
- Some grammar schools ran a separate curriculum for the sons of merchants and craftsmen, focused on more practical academic subjects like English, geography, and arithmetic.
→ This shaped education, reflecting what the economy needed but still focused on preparing boys for the life they were expected to lead.
Skilled Craftsmen and Yeomen:
- Children of these professions would have much of their education come in the form of apprenticeships. They learnt what was necessary to run the family business or farm.
- For boys, whether they could go to school or not depended on whether their family could manage without having them help at home or in the family business.
- School wasn't compulsory, and a child's education depended on whether their parents valued a school-based education.
Petty Schools:
- Often set up and run in a teacher's home.
- Boys who could afford to receive schooling began their education here.
- They learnt reading and writing in English and basic arithmetic.
- Often harsh punishment, including beating, was common for not doing well in lessons.
- After attending a petty school, bright or wealthy boys would go to a grammar school.
Schools for Girls:
- Girls of all classes didn't often go to school, but if they did, they attended a dame school that provided basic education, usually run by a local, educated woman.
- Women weren't expected to support themselves, so for most girls, education was focused on the home.
- As wives and mothers, they would need a wide variety of skills, such as baking, presenting food, sewing, and treating simple injuries and ailments.
Labourers and Poor Children:
- Most girls and boys had no formal education, as the majority of the population were farmers or laborers. They learnt what they needed from their families, who worked on the land or at home.
- In most cases, children needed to contribute to family income from an early age, and the jobs they expected to find didn't require literacy or numeracy.
Impact of Schools on Elizabethans:
- Around 30% of men and 10% of women were literate by the end of Elizabeth's reign (1603) versus 20% of men and 10% of women in the 1530s.
- Leading thinkers and writers increasingly believed in women having a satisfactory education, but the main obstacle to schooling was its cost.
Fees and the loss of family income due to children not working are important considerations.
- Ordinary people's attitudes didn't change in Elizabethan times, as girls were expected to marry and not work outside the house. However, they expected boys to find paid employment to support their families, and a little education could help them secure better jobs.
Universities:
- There were two universities (Oxford and Cambridge). Started university at 14/15, and the curriculum included geometry, music, astronomy, medicine, law, and divinity.
- The highest university qualification was a doctorate, which could be taken in medicine, law, or divinity.
- Mildmay (Privy Councillor) set up Emmanuel College, Cambridge, in 1584 to educate more Protestant clergymen.
- In London, the Inns of Court trained lawyers, and some young men went there for their higher education.
Leisure:
- Social class and gender could determine what sports and leisure activities you could participate in. Wealthier classes had much more opportunity to enjoy leisure.
- Men had more sporting options than women.
Sport
Nobility and Gentry:
Sports played by the nobility included:
→ hunting on horseback (men and women),
→ hawking (men and women),
→ fishing (men and women),
→ fencing and tennis (men).
- Men from all social classes participated in some sports, but they didn't play together.
→ Wrestling and swimming were popular with all men.
- Noblemen would wrestle in private, but men of a lower social class would partake in public wrestling matches.
→ Gambling on the outcome was popular. Nobility and gentry would often bet and watch alongside other classes.
Workers, Artisans, Farmers, and Labourers:
- Football was a lower-class game for men and was violent.
→ It was not uncommon for men to be killed during matches that could last for hours.
- Unlike today, the goals came in all shapes and sizes.
- There were no rules against the size of the pitch, the number of players, injuring opposing teams players, and picking up and running with the ball.
- Because of the random nature of the pitches, there were no set positions.
Spectator Sports:
- Elizabethans enjoyed watching sporting competitions depending on their class.
- Often large sums of money were gambled on the outcomes.
Baiting:
- A bear would be chained to a post, and dogs would be unleashed against it. Care was taken not to kill the bear if possible, as they were expensive.
- Special arenas were built in London to house baiting, and all classes enjoyed it, including Elizabeth.
- Bull baiting was also widespread; most towns had a bull ring. Dogs would position themselves against a chained bull, and the bull would use its horns to repel them.
Cockfighting:
- Aggressive birds, known as cockerels, have evolved to wear metal spurs and use their beaks to attack each other.
- Many places, including small towns, had unique arenas for cockfighting. All the classes enjoyed it and placed huge bets.
- All Puritans disapproved of baiting and cockfighting, mainly because the fights typically took place on Sundays, which they revered as holy days.
Pastimes
Literature:
- Elizabeth's reign witnessed the creation of a tremendous amount of new literature.
- Popular genres included history, accounts of voyages of discovery, translations of Latin and Greek classics, and mediaeval works such as 'Canterbury Tales'.
- The most popular forms of creative writing were poetry and plays. Most well-educated people wrote poetry, including the queen.
- Theatre was undergoing a revolution during Elizabeth's reign.
Theatre:
- Developed as a result of Protestantism.
→ At the start of Elizabeth's reign, mystery plays were standard, bringing the Bible and Saints' stories to life.
- Some Protestants believed the centuries-old plays were another way for Catholics to control interpretations of the Bible, as the plays kept the saints' memories and miracles in the public imagination.
- Elizabeth was concerned that they might incite religious violence, which led to the transformation of theatre into secular plays.
- Secular plays were in high demand, and unlike religious plays, the ending was unknown.
- The demand for theatre skyrocketed, leading to the formation of theatre companies throughout England.
→ The Earl of Leicester had his own company, Leicester's Men.
→ In 1583, Elizabeth established The Queen's Men.
- The popularity of plays meant lots of money to be made, and purpose-built theatres were constructed (many built in London).
→ The Red Lion was the first theatre (in Whitechapel) in 1567.
- All classes enjoyed theatre, but only men could act. Sometimes there were queues of 2000 people waiting to see a performance.
- Poor people could pay a penny to stand in the pit before the stage. Seats were costly, and the most expensive were those directly above the stage, not where you got the best view, but the rest of the audience could see you sitting there.
Music and Dancing:
- Elizabethans of all classes were passionate about music, and many played instruments like lutes, harpsichords, and spinets.
→ All expensive instruments were found in the upper classes and nobility.
- Bagpipes and fiddles were popular with the lower class.
- Wealthy families would employ their own musicians to play during feasts and meals, but only men could be paid musicians.
- Lower classes listened to music at fairs, markets, or on public occasions. Towns employed musicians to play at official functions and public events.
- There was also music in churches, taverns, and barbers' shops.
- New music was being composed to accompany new, secular plays. There was also new development in musical instruments.
→ This contributed to more new music being heard throughout England.
- Dancing was very popular, although upper and lower classes didn't dance together. It brought men and women together.
The Problem of the Poor:
- Unemployment and illness equalled poverty and starvation.
- Elizabethan society was concerned with:
→ those poor enough to need financial aid and charity (alms),
→ those who begged or were homeless, and
→ "Itinerants" are individuals who have left their home parishes searching for employment.
- A 1570 survey of the poor in Norwich said:
→ Approximately 40% of the impoverished individuals counted were under 16 years old, and the increasing population made it challenging to secure employment.
→ Families headed by women (often widows) tended to also be very poor, as women were paid a lot less than men if they had work.
→ Of all adults included, two-thirds were women, and one-quarter of them were over 60. Husbands had abandoned or widowed these women.
Why did Poverty increase?
- During Elizabeth's reign, the population increased by as much as 35%, and towns and cities grew especially fast.
→ London was the fastest-growing city and had a population of 150,000 in 1603, 10x the size of the second city, Norwich.
- Farmers grew food in the countryside and brought it to urban areas for sale, which led to the need to feed more people and an increase in food prices in towns. Food production grew slower than the population.
Rising Prices:
- Food prices rose even further when harvests were bad.
- Poverty increased because wages did not rise as fast as prices.
→ Many landowners and employers cut wages to keep their own costs down.
- As the population grew, so did the demand for land, which meant landowners could charge much higher rents.
- When someone took over a piece of land, they had to pay an entry fee, which also increased over time.
→ Some tenants were unable to maintain their land due to financial constraints, while others faced eviction to accommodate sheep farming.
Sheep Farming:
- English wool and woollen cloth accounted for 81.6% of England's exports during Elizabeth's reign.
- The price of wool increased as demand for woollen cloth grew.
→ This resulted in sheep farming becoming extremely profitable, leading landowners to turn to it as a means of generating income.
→ Only large farmers could afford this large-scale business. It was not uncommon for flocks to contain over 10,000 sheep.
- The increase in sheep farming caused problems because:
→ They took land that was once used for growing crops or as common land.
→ It didn't require as much labor as growing crops, but rural unemployment rose nonetheless.
→ Feeding sheep during the winter meant growing some crops solely for animal consumption. This angered many when large numbers of people couldn't afford bread or went hungry.
Enclosure:
- Enclosing land meant replacing the large, open fields that villagers farmed with individual fields belonging to one person.
- Enclosure frequently resulted in the merger of small farms and the eviction of tenant farmers.
→ resulted in rural depopulation and unemployment, causing great anger and resentment.
- As the number of printing presses increased, new ideas and beneficial farming practices spread. Some farmers began to control animal breeding to produce better livestock.
→ They needed to keep animals in enclosed fields to stop them wandering off.
The enclosure also prevented livestock from trampling over other crops.
Rising food prices also encouraged an increase in arable farming. New farming techniques, such as improving land drainage and using better fertiliser, produced more crops.
→ Enclosed fields made draining, planting, and caring for crops much more manageable.
Up-and-Down Husbandry:
- Practicing both arable and animal farming → land would be used for crops 1 year and for livestock the next.
→ The livestock fertilised the field so that when crops were planted the following year, the soil produced more.
- However, for this to be effective, animals needed to be in enclosed fields so that the manure left by the animals was where it was needed.
→ Before enclosure, when there were three large, open fields, one was left fallow to allow the soil to recover for a year. This was not a beneficial use of land.
- Enclosure causes Poverty to increase:
- Ordinary farm labourers, or those who couldn't afford increased rents, suffered.
- More efficient techniques for growing crops require fewer labourers, which in turn reduces the costs for landowners.
- Sheep farming required less labour than arable farming, with the exception of lambing and shearing times.
- The population increased; the supply of labor increased; and wages fell.
- Sometimes, the common land in a village was also enclosed, where people had ancient rights, allowing them the freedom to graze their pigs, collect firewood, and forage for food.
→ For those engaged in subsistence farming, common land was essential for their survival, and its enclosure sparked significant anger and resentment.
Land Values and Rent:
- Landowners increased the rents of tenant farmers as the potential earnings from farming increased.
→ Those who couldn’t pay were forced off the land to make way for wealthier tenants.
How Significant was the Enclosure Problem?
- Sir Thomas Smith blamed the gentry and yeomen in a pamphlet from the 1560s for favouring sheep over crops due to the higher prices for wool.
→ This resulted in a loss of animosity toward sheep farm owners, particularly when they fenced off common land for their operations; it was widely believed that cultivating food for human consumption should take precedence.
- By the end of the 16th century, England had only enclosed 2-3% of its land. However, it still had a significant impact, thanks to the writings of individuals such as Smith.
→ Combined with rising food prices and more vagabonds, adding to towns and cities, enclosure was used as a scapegoat for the blame of these problems.
Vagabondage:
- Vagabondage greatly concerned Elizabethans, especially the government and nobility.
- In Elizabethan society, there was a strict hierarchy where everyone had a specific place. However, vagabonds lived outside this hierarchy, as they had no place at all.
- Vagabonds often lived outside the law, and Elizabethan society feared them because they posed a threat to law and order.
The Urban Poor:
- The depopulation of rural areas exacerbated the issue of vagabondage, as many individuals abandoned their villages in search of employment in towns and cities.
- However, city life can be challenging, particularly during an economic recession.
- e.g., when poor relations between England and Spain led to trade embargoes with the Netherlands and significant increases in unemployment due to the lack of cloth trading.
→ This meant many people who’d left their villages became beggars or turned to a life of crime.
- Outside London's city walls, the poor built tightly packed-together shacks.
- Since they were outside the city and beyond the authority of government officials, there was a high prevalence of crime and disorder. All towns faced similar problems.
- The number of urban poor grew very fast.
HFDYA that population growth was the main reason vagabondage increased?
1. Population growth
2. Enclosure and rural depopulation
3. Economic recession impacts in cities
Changing Attitudes and Policies towards the Poor:
- Impotent/deserving poverty refers to individuals who are unable to work due to age or illness.
- Able-bodied/idle poor refers to individuals who were capable of working but chose not to.
- The poor rate, a unique local tax, provided financial assistance for the extremely impoverished. JP organised poor relief.
- For many Elizabethans, helping the less fortunate was a Christian duty.
- Individual charities were another source of help.
- The Tudors were sympathetic to deserving poor, but idle poor were treated much harsher.
→ Vagrants faced severe punishment if they were caught, like whipping and imprisonment.
- When trade was bad, especially the cloth trade, the number of people who were able-bodied poor increased more than ever.
- Able-bodied poor people are a noticeable problem in towns.
→ Poor and unemployed people were very visible because there were so many of them.
→ Many people came to towns in search of work.
- The cloth trade was especially disastrous in 1563-64, 1568-73, and 1586-88.
→ During Elizabeth's reign, unemployment was recognised as a real social and economic problem, leading to the development of new ways to help the poor.
Government Action:
- New laws were passed by Elizabeth's Parliament because of fear of vagrancy and social unrest and because unemployment was now recognised as a problem needing to be tackled.
Poor Laws
1563 Statute of Artificers:
- The goal was to ensure that the poor received relief.
→ Anyone who refused to pay could face imprisonment.
→ If officials fail to arrange poor relief, they could face a fine of up to £20.
1572 Vagabonds Act:
- The aim was to deter vagrancy.
→ The plan was to whip vagrants and drill a hole through each ear.
→ If a vagrant is arrested for the second time and receives the death penalty for the third, they will be imprisoned.
- Towns and cities were responsible for finding work for the able-bodied poor.
- The national poor rate was established for the first time, sheltering the impotent poor.
- JPs were to keep a register of the poor.
1576 Poor Relief Act:
- The aim was to distinguish between able-bodied and impotent poor people and help able-bodied poor people find work.
→ JPs supplied the able-bodied poor with wool and raw materials to enable them to work by making things to sell.
→ Those who refused to work when given help were sent to a special prison: The House of Correction, funded by the poor rate.
Impact of Poor Laws:
- Despite the real problem, ordinary Elizabethans were sympathetic; some local records show that less than 10% of vagrants were whipped in some towns.
- Most of the time, giving them money and sending them on their way was more cost-effective than whipping them and sending them back to their home parish.
- The most important change to Elizabethan poor laws was the recognition of unemployment as a genuine problem and not just laziness.
→ Providing the poor with work helped them keep some independence and dignity and often enabled them to stay in their hometown/village.
- Ipswich established a school and hospital for the poor as early as 1569 and constructed a unique jail for the unemployed.
- Some London parishes provided special help for the sick, the elderly, and abandoned babies.
Exploration and Voyages of Discovery
Expanding Trade:
- English merchants needed to explore new trading opportunities as the conflict with Spain had a significant impact on the cloth and wool trade.
→ As England relied on cloth exports so much, finding new markets and products to sell was vital. Reports from the Americas suggested an abundance of different crops, animal skins, and precious metals.
- Private investors (including Elizabeth) funded many of the voyages of discovery. Although risky, rewards could be enormous—e.g., Drake.
- Spain became very rich because of its silver mines in Peru and the export of exotic crops (like sugar cane and tobacco).
Triangular Trade:
- English merchants first began to exploit the ancient African slave trade in 1562, when John Hawkins bought slaves, transported them across the Atlantic, and sold them to the Spanish. With the profits, he brought back slaves to England.
- It eventually developed on a massive scale, involving the buying and selling of hundreds of Africans.
Adventure:
- Some young Elizabethan men, especially those of the gentry and nobility, went on voyages of discovery and exploration in the hope of making their fortune.
- The publication of accounts of voyages to the Americas and the treasures to be found there persuaded people to venture into the unknown.
Navigation:
- By 1584, English mathematician Harriot had worked out a more straightforward way of calculating a ship's true sailing direction using the sun.
→ The intended journeys were safer, more direct, and faster.
- The use of quadrants and astrolabes to calculate a ship's position has increased.
- They used the position of the stars to do this.
- Making navigation more straightforward and more accurate was vital for long voyages of discovery.
→ Sometimes, people recorded these journeys to make it easier for others to follow mapped-out routes.
- Printed books detailing voyages became increasingly available.
Maps:
- Improved navigation plus records of voyages meant there were more accurate maps.
- Mercator created the Mercator map in 1569. He used longitude and latitude to place lands more accurately on a map, helping sailors.
- Printing also enabled these maps to become more widespread and consistent between copies. Previously, the process of copying and hand-drawing maps resulted in numerous errors.
Ship Design:
- The 16th century saw the development of galleons, which were large trading ships that could carry more cargo, making them essential for long journeys across the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
- Galleons also featured lowered bows and stems, which made them more stable in heavy seas.
- Galleons used different sail types on the same vessel, making them easier to manoeuvre. Additionally, having more masts and sails allowed for longer, faster, and more accurate voyages.
- Galleons featured gun decks that extended the length of the ship, with cannons that could fire from the sides, bow, and stem, enabling them to defend themselves against piracy and Spanish ships.
Drake's Circumnavigation of the Globe:
- It took almost three years—from December 1577 to September 1580. Elizabeth knighted him after he returned.
- Drake's primary goal was to raid Spanish colonies in the Pacific, as his relations with Spain were deteriorating at the time and Elizabeth desired retribution.
- However, Drake also wanted revenge; in 1567–68, he accompanied Hawkins on a third transatlantic expedition. English attempts to break Spain's trading monopoly in the New World infuriated the Spanish this time, and they prepared for an attack. The English devastated their fleet, resulting in the deaths of 325 of their sailors. Hawkins and Drake returned home with only 15 sailors.
Significance of Drake’s Circumnavigation:
- By the time Drake reached the Pacific in 1578, only one of the five ships he set out with (The Golden Hind) could have ended in disaster.
- Drake accused one sailor, Doughty, of mutiny, which led to his execution on the voyage.
- Despite this, Drake and his 56 surviving men returned to England as the 2nd crew being able to circumnavigate the globe.
→ It boosted English morale and established the reputation of English ships and sailors, which was important at a time of growing fears that the Spanish could invade England at any time.
- Drake and his crew gathered a great deal of useful information about the Americas, as well as keeping thorough logs of their voyage that could be written up and shared with other English sailors, encouraging further exploration.
Nova Albion:
- In June 1579, the Golden Hind was in urgent need of repair after exploring North America’s Pacific Coast.
- The Native Americans treated the English with outstanding hospitality. They conducted a ceremony that Drake interpreted as akin to a coronation, naming the region Nova Albion and declaring Elizabeth as its sovereign.
- Elizabeth and other European leaders didn’t recognise the agreement made by the pope almost a century earlier that gave the Americas to Spain and Portugal.
→ Elizabeth granted the explorers the authority to take any land that no Christian leader had claimed, without taking into account the existing rights of the Native Americans to the land.
→ The peaceful welcome to Drake (in what's now called California) encouraged the idea that Europeans could settle and even rule there.
Encouraging Colonies in America:
- There were already plans to establish English colonies in the Americas, but by the early 1570s, they'd come to nothing.
- Elizabeth gave Sir Humphrey Gilbert permission to set out on a voyage of discovery to North America. The voyage ended in disaster, and Gilbert became bankrupt.
- However, after Drake returned to England with wealth, his reports encouraged adventurers and investors to continue their efforts to establish their own colonies there.
→ In 1583, Gilbert was ready to embark once more.
Anglo-Spanish Damaged Relations:
- When Elizabeth knighted Drake on the Golden Hind, it sent a clear message to Phillip II: He regarded Drake as a pirate, and Elizabeth’s actions as scandalous.
Raleigh and Virginia
Walter Raleigh's Significance:
- He was born into a gentry family and went on to become an explorer and courtier during Elizabeth's reign.
- Elizabeth awarded him a grant in 1584 to explore and settle in North America.
→ Having already experienced two unsuccessful attempts in 1578 and 1583, Raleigh's project faced even greater challenges. Raleigh needed to raise huge amounts of money and encourage potential English colonists to leave their homes and settle in a land many knew little about.
- Raleigh did not personally lead the colonists to Virginia. Elizabeth didn't want to lose one of her favorite courtiers while there was still concern over Anglo-Spanish relations. But he was still significant because:
→ Investigated, organised, and raised funds.
→ Promoted the voyage and persuaded people to leave England.
→ The governor of Virginia, who ruled in his place, received his appointment.
→ The team created a model to guide future English colonisation efforts.
Investigating and Promoting the Virginia Project:
- Raleigh sent a fact-finding expedition to Virginia in 1584. Explorers who went were able to barter tin utensils and metal knives for fish, nuts, and a variety of fruits and vegetables.
- The Indians were very friendly and welcoming, and accounts brought back to England described this part of North America as a paradise.
- Raleigh used these findings to persuade a group of Englishmen to leave their homes and make the dangerous voyage across the Atlantic to find their fortunes.
Manteo and Wanchese:
- Manteo and Wanchese were two Native Americans brought back to England from the 1584 expedition.
- They were extremely helpful in creating an English-Algonquian dictionary and in assisting the first English colonists to establish contact with their people.
Raising Funds:
- The cost was enormous—not enough money to successfully colonise the New World by just trading on the voyage.
But there were clear economic benefits:
→ The colony would provide work for English cloth makers and merchants.
→ The colony would supply England with exotic materials like gold and tobacco.
→ Native Americans would barter items for simple, inexpensive English goods, such as woollen cloth.
→ This would result in significant benefits for the English government.
- Elizabeth refused to fund the new colony, but she did grant him a ship and gunpowder worth £400.
→ The royal backing gave the project prestige and encouraged investment.
- Raleigh assured investors that he would accept any Spanish ships, including their cargoes, that he encountered. This was crucial in attracting merchants to invest, especially considering the substantial amount Drake had brought back in 1580.
- Raleigh also invested a significant amount of his own money, which was crucial for convincing others that it could succeed.
- By 1585, he had all the resources he needed.
Raleigh’s Organisation and Planning
Ships:
- There are sufficient ships that are big enough to carry colonists and supplies.
- In the event of a pirate or Spanish weapon attack, one must be well-armed.
Supplies:
- Enough food to get across the Atlantic and last until harvest.
- Fresh water for the voyage.
- Farming implements and seeds for planting.
- Salt for preserving food.
- Tools and raw materials for the artisans.
When to Sail?
- The colony could not function without sufficient colonists under favourable conditions.
- However, we must set sail in time to sow crops, as a healthy harvest is essential to sustain the colonists until winter.
Who?
- Around 300 colonists must possess a variety of skills, including landowners, hunters, fishermen, clergy, soldiers (for protection), artisans, and farmers, all of which are essential for the creation of a new society.
- It was crucial to make sure there were enough farmers to feed everyone else.
Other Considerations:
- Spain could attack colonists who controlled Florida and the Caribbean.
- Colonists would need to buy animals in the Caribbean for eating and breeding.
- Building shelter once they've arrived.
- Variety of seeds in huge quantities.
- Colonists will need to barter with Indians when they first arrive.
Finding Colonists and Sailors:
- In the end, Raleigh’s colony only had 107 colonists, and all were men. Nearly all of the colonists were soldiers, but there were also many other professions such as farmers and artisans, many of whom were drawn by the prospect of making their fortunes in Virginia.
Appointing Leaders:
- The Queen did not allow Raleigh to lead the expedition himself due to the growing fear of a Spanish invasion, as it was too dangerous.
- Richard Grenville—expedition commander.
→ Experienced sailor and soldier; adventurous and hot-headed.
- Ralph Lane—Governor of Virginia.
→ Expert in fort building, explorer, and tough soldier, enjoyed challenges, and had a positive attitude.
- Thomas Harriot—translator and cartographer.
→ Worked with Manteo and Wanchese, understood navigation, and was skilled at making maps.
Ships and Timing:
- 'The Tiger,' the largest ship, transported all the perishables, such as meats, seeds, and wine, to Virginia.
- Ships left England in April 1585; it was already too late to start planting some of their crops. They needed to extend their stay until the winter season.
- The English landed on Roanoke Island in late 1585; this and surrounding areas were where English colonists first settled.
Why was Virginia's Colonisation Significant?
Undermining Spain:
- It gave England a base from which to assault Spanish colonies in the New World.
→ Virginia was not too far from Florida and the Caribbean to launch attacks, but it was far enough to be reasonably safe from the Spanish.
- In the long term, England hoped to rival Spain's overseas empire and undermine its influence in the New World.
- A successful colony in Virginia would serve as an example for other ventures and also offer the Native Americans an alternative to Spanish domination.
- However, this didn’t happen.
The Roots of the British Empire:
- In the next century, the English succeeded in establishing a strong presence in North America.
- The early attempts to settle in Virginia provided an opportunity to learn from the mistakes they made.
- These 16th-century experiments served as the foundation for the British Empire that grew in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Economic Benefits:
- Trade was vital to the English economy, and Elizabeth hoped to encourage English merchants to find new markets, as the conflict with Spain made trading in Europe extremely difficult.
→ By the 1560s, relying on the Netherlands as England's main market and trade route was far too risky.
- Virginia could supply many items from Southern Europe and the Mediterranean; if England could control it, they wouldn't be dependent on nations like Spain, the Italian states, and France for fruits, vines, spices, and other luxuries.
Tobacco, popularised by Raleigh, was the most famous new crop and trade opportunity brought to England along with sugar cane (from the Americas).
Why did Colonisation Efforts in Virginia fail?
12 markers: 1) lack of knowledge and preparation, 2) native resistance, and 3) wrong selection of people.
The Voyage:
- Many colonists were ill before they arrived.
- The climate was hot and humid, and there were lots of mosquitoes, so food rotted quickly.
- 'The Tiger' sustained damage, ruining the food and seeds it carried. This resulted in the loss of any hope of establishing a self-sufficient colony, leaving the colonists dependent on Native Americans for food.
The Colonists:
- Many merchants had come in the hope of getting rich quickly rather than being prepared to put the necessary groundwork in.
- The search for precious metals yielded no results.
- The prospect of foraging for nuts and berries when winter came wasn’t what they signed up for.
- The colonists did not cooperate effectively, as the merchants and "gentlemen" showed no intention of performing any work.
→ Expected to use natives as labour but soon realised that ruling over the native people easily would be impossible.
- Farmer colonists were not prepared to work for the upper classes, as they preferred to cultivate their own land.
- The soldiers who arrived were crucial for defending the colony and exploring new areas, but they lacked the necessary skills to cultivate the land and lacked discipline.
→ The execution of at least one soldier left his body rotting, serving as a warning to others.
- There was a shortage of farmers and a surplus of craftsmen, which resulted in many artisans lacking the necessary raw materials. The lack of stone for the stonemasons necessitated the construction of the planned fort using wood.
- In 'The Tiger,' the hunters spilt their gunpowder, making shooting extremely difficult.
- Fishermen also struggled because English fishing techniques didn't work in the shallow waters around Roanoke Island.
Inexperience:
- The colonists were very reliant on the Native Americans for their survival.
- There were not the right kinds of people in the right numbers; many weren’t out for a life of hardship and long-term rewards.
Native American Resistance:
- The colonists relied on Manteo and Wanchese, but they were insufficient. The local chief, Wingina, ruled Roanoke Island and was known for his unpredictable nature and suspicion of the English. He also became worn out by the constant demands for food, so he turned against the English settlers.
- Wingina believed that the English had supernatural powers from their God, which they used against the Natives.
→ Many people held the belief that upon the departure of the English from a settlement, numerous natives would succumb to previously unknown diseases. This was because the English brought diseases the natives had never encountered before.
- There were some violent clashes between the natives and the English as winter hardships set in, and colonists wanted more handouts.
- By spring 1586, Wingina and some others planned to attack the English. Lane discovered this, prepared, and killed Wingina.
- The colony had soon reached crisis point, and Lane, with the remaining colonists, left Virginia and arrived back in the UK on 27th July 1586.
Roanoke 1587-90:
- Another attempt at colonising Virginia was set out from England in 1587. This time there were 17 women and many families.
- Many colonists came from poverty in London and were familiar with hardships in their quest for a better life.
→ Each person is guaranteed to receive at least 500 acres of land for farming.
- After making Manteo Lord of Roanoke, they placed John White, who had survived the 1585 expedition, in overall charge because he knew what to expect.
- White's advisor, George Howe, vanished and turned up dead, suffering from 16 arrow wounds. Manteo led an attack against the locals as a form of retaliation, but it proved to be a mistake as it resulted in the deaths of some remaining friendly Indians from nearby Croatoan settlements.
- Raleigh asked White to return to England and provide an update on the events. When he returned to Roanoke after 3 years, it was deserted, and what happened to the settlement remains a mystery.